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Dali Kingdom

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See also: Timeline of Yunnan-Guizhou
Dali Kingdom
大理國
Dablit Guaif
  • 937–1094, 1096–1253
  • (1094–1096: Dazhong Kingdom)
Map of Dali Kingdom in late 12th century
Map of Dali Kingdom in late 12th century
StatusSong dynasty tributary state (982–1253)
CapitalYangjumie (in present-day Dali Town, Yunnan)
Common languagesWritten Classic Chinese
Bai
Religion
Buddhism
GovernmentMonarchy
Emperor 
• 937–944
Duan Siping
• 1081–1094
Duan Zhengming
• 1096–1108
Duan Zhengchun
• 1172–1200
Duan Zhixing
• 1251–1254
Duan Xingzhi
History 
• Established
937
1094
• Reestablished
1096
• Conquered by the Mongol Empire
1253
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Dayining
Dazhong
Dazhong
Mongol Empire
Today part ofChina
Laos
Myanmar
Vietnam
Dali Kingdom
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese大理國
Simplified Chinese大理国
Literal meaningState of Dali
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinDàlǐ Guó
IPA[tâ.lì.kwǒ]
Alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese後大理
後理國
Simplified Chinese后大理
后理国
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinHòu Dàlǐ
Hòu Lǐ Guó
IPA[xôʊ tâ.lì]
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabetVương quốc Đại Lý
Hán-Nôm王國大理
Bai name
BaiDablit Guaif
Part of a series on the
History of China
History of China in Chinese characters and seal script
Prehistoric
Yellow, Yangtze, and Liao civilization
Ancient
  • Xia (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BCE)
  • Shang (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE)
Late Shang (c. 1250 – c. 1046 BCE)
  • Zhou (c. 1046 – c. 256 BCE)
Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE)
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The Dali Kingdom, also known as the Dali State (simplified Chinese: 大理国; traditional Chinese: 大理國; pinyin: Dàlǐ Guó; Bai: Dablit Guaif), was a dynastic state situated in modern Yunnan province, China from 937 until 1253. In 1253, it was conquered by the Mongols but members of its former ruling house continued to administer the area as tusi chiefs under the auspices of the Yuan dynasty until the Ming conquest of Yunnan in 1382.[1] Today the former capital of the Dali Kingdom is still called Dali in modern Yunnan Province.

Name

[edit]

The Dali Kingdom takes its name from Dali City. Famed for its high quality marble, Dali (dàlǐ 大理) literally means "marble" in Chinese.[2]

Dali marble is famous throughout Asia and among collectors of gemstones all over the world. For a few square inches of Shuimohuashi, a particularly precious type of marble, dealers in Hong Kong or Shanghai can charge up to $20,000. For more than 1,000 years Dali has been known as the town of marble; indeed, the Chinese word dali means “marble.”[2]

— Barbara A. West

History

[edit]
Gilt Silver Statue of Ganruda inlaid with crystal beads, found at the Qianxun Pagoda of Chongsheng Temple, exhibited at Yunnan Provincial Museum.

Origins

[edit]

Nanzhao was overthrown in 902 and three dynasties followed in quick succession before Duan Siping seized power in 937, establishing himself at Dali.[3] The Duan clan professed to have Han ancestry.[4] Yuan dynasty records said the Duan family came from Wuwei in Gansu:

Yuan records claim that the Dali kingdom’s Duan rulers originally came from Wuwei Commandery in modern-day Gansu Province, but this is not confirmed by Song or Dali sources. A significant change from Nanzhao is apparent in Dali rulers’ naming practices, which generally do not follow the patronymic linkage system. This suggests that the Dali elites presented themselves as more “Chinese” than their Nanzhao counterparts.[5]

— Megan Bryson

Relations with the Song dynasty

[edit]

Dali's relationship with the Song was cordial throughout its entire existence. Dali congratulated the Song dynasty on the conquest of Later Shu in 965 and voluntarily established tribute relations in 982. It was however essentially an independent state. At times the Song even declined offers of tribute.[3] The Song founder Song Taizu declared all land south of the Dadu River to be Dali territory and did not desire to pursue any further claims to avoid the Tang dynasty's disastrous efforts against Nanzhao.[6]

Dali relations with the Song differed markedly from Nanzhao-Tang relations. When the first Song emperor, Taizu, came to power, he declared that, in light of Tang difficulties in the Southwest, he would forfeit the Yue and Sui Commanderies and use the Dadu River as the border with Dali. His successors followed this policy, so contact between the Song and Dali was minimal. Song records show reluctance to engage with Dali directly in any way, even through the standard tributary relationship of vassal (Dali) and lord (Song). Because of Song officials’ wariness, Dali was only allowed to offer tribute at the Song court on three occasions. Their requests to offer tribute were repeatedly rejected on the grounds that they would cause trouble for Song, as Nanzhao had for Tang.[7]

— Megan Bryson

Dali's primary importance to the Song dynasty was its horses, which were highly prized and sought after as military assets, especially after the fall of the Northern Song. They were described by a Song official in the following passage:

These horses possess a shape [that is] quite magnificent. They stand low with a muscular front, very similar to the shape of a chicken. The diaphragm is broad, shoulders thick, waist flat, and back round. They are trained to squat on their rear ends like a dog. They easily climb steep terrain on command and possess both speed and agility in chase. They have been raised on bitter buckwheat, so they require little to maintain. How could a horse like this not be considered a good horse?[8]

Dazhong Kingdom (1094-1096)

[edit]

In 1094, the former prime minister Gao Shengtai forced King Duan Zhengming to relinquish the throne to him and renamed the Dali Kingdom to "Dazhong Kingdom". Gao Shengtai ruled briefly until his death in 1096, after which the throne was returned to the Duan family. Duan Zhengming's younger brother, Duan Zhengchun, became the new ruler and restored the kingdom's former name.[7]

The Gao of Beisheng claimed descent from Gao Shengtai 高昇泰, who usurped the throne of the Dali kingdom c.1094 for approximately one year. According to the Yuan History, Gao Zhisheng 高智升 sent his grandson, Gao Dahui 高大惠, to administer the area after the fall of the Nanzhao kingdom. The Gao served as the Native Officials of Beisheng sub-prefecture for eleven generations during the Ming dynasty. The Ming appointed the first Gao Ce 高策 in recognition of his meritorious military service in 1389, and the eleventh Gao Shichang 高世昌 inherited the position of Vice Magistrate of rank four in 1630.[9]

— Huang Caiwen

Intervention in Đại Việt

[edit]

According to a Vietnamese stone inscription[further explanation needed], in 1096 a Dali magician was said to have plotted a conspiracy to murder King Lý Nhân Tông. After the death of Nhân Tông in 1127, his adopted son (by concubine) named Zhizhi had escaped to Dali, changed his surname to Zhao, and assumed the title pingwang (peaceful king). When he learned that his older brother, King Lý Thần Tông, had died in 1137, Zhizhi returned to Đại Việt and attacked Lý Anh Tông with 3,000 Dali troops. However, he was defeated and executed.[10]

Fall

[edit]
Further information: Uriyangkhadai § Invasion of Yunnan and Tibet

Möngke Khan sent envoys requesting the surrender of Dali. The king of Dali murdered the envoys and when Möngke received word of this, he placed his brother Kublai in charge of invading Dali.[11]

Kublai split his army into three columns. The western column was led by Uriyangkhadai, who was the son of Subutai, and he was instructed to march from Lintao through Kham into Dali. Wang Dezhen led the eastern column through Sichuan. Wang's column rejoined Kublai's middle column at Jianchang in southern Sichuan. Kublai planned to engage Dali's main army at the Jinsha River, leaving Dali vulnerable to Uriyangkhadai's forces to the northwest. After several skirmishes where Dali forces turned back Mongol raids across the Jinsha River, Kublai's army crossed the river during the night and routed the Dali army. In late 1253, the three columns converged on the city of Dali.[11]

The king of Dali, Duan Xingzhi, fled to the town of Shanchan (near modern Kunming) and rallied pro-Dali forces to oppose the Mongol invasion. It took another two years of fighting before the Mongols captured the cities of Dali and Shanchan. However the resistance against the Mongols continued to the east of Shanchan with the assistance of the Yi kingdoms and the Song dynasty.[12]

In 1256, Duan Xingzhi surrendered and presented to Möngke with maps of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi of Dali was enfeoffed as Maharaja (摩诃罗嵯),[13] and the Duan imperial family continued to hold the title of Maharaja in Yunnan as vassals to the Mongols under the supervision of Borjigin imperial princes and Muslim governors. The Duan family reigned in Dali while the governors served in Kunming. After the Ming conquest of Yunnan,[14] the members of the Duan clan were scattered in various distant areas of China by the Hongwu Emperor.[15]

Yunnan under the Yuan dynasty

[edit]

Resistance

[edit]

Uriyangkhadai remained in Yunnan to oversee Duan's rule of Dali and to push further east into the Song dynasty. By mid-1256, 20 military brigades had been established throughout Dali and military units had been sent to attack Ziqi. Mongols and Central Asians filled brigade commander positions while members of the local elite staffed the subbrigade battalions. Uriyangkhadai rewarded locals who had supported the Mongol invasion and created a new elite to rival the old pro-Dali elite.[16]

In late 1256, Uriyangkhadai forced the local collaborators in Shanchan to attack the Yi kingdoms in eastern Yunnan and western Guizhou. Those who refused were killed. The Song supported the Yi kingdoms by sending them 10,000 taels of silver and instructing them to defending Ziqi. The Song backed forces invaded the Shanchan region in support of an anti-Mongol rebellion led by Sheliwei. At the same time, Uriyangkhadai was called away to invade Đại Việt under the Trần dynasty. Fierce fighting continued between the Mongol-Dali forces and the Shanchan resistance until Sheliwei was killed in a Mongol ambush in 1274.[17]

The Duan family governed Yunnan's various indigenous peoples for eleven generations until the end of Mongol rule. They willingly contributed soldiers to the Mongol campaign against the Song dynasty. In 1271, they aided the Yuan dynasty in putting down a Mongol rebellion in Yunnan.[15]

Ajall Shams al-Din Omar

[edit]

In 1274, Ajall Shams al-Din Omar was assigned by Kublai to stabilize Yunnan. He repaired the road connecting Dali and Shanchan and a network of 78 postal relay stations was established from Dali to the town of Shicheng (modern Qujing). Instead of the military brigades established by Uriyangkhadai, Sayyid' Ajall established political units similar to those in China with circuits, routes, prefectures, and counties. The Yunnan Branch Secretariat was divided into ten circuits, each headed by a pacification commissioner (xuanwei shi). Prefectures and counties were governed by a route commander. Directives by each administrative unit was cosigned by a darughachi and a civilian official.[18]

He instituted a native chieftain system that came to be known as tusi which assigned ranks and posts to native chieftains. Under this institution of "rule based on native customs" the locals retained much of their autonomy with the exception of three obligations. One, they would provide surrendered troops to the Yuan government. Two, local chieftains would provide tribute to the Yuan court. Three, they would follow the rules of appointment, succession, promotion, degradation, reward, and punishment of native chieftains created by the Yuan court.[15]

In the Shanchan region of central Yunnan, Sayyid' Ajall created eight routes: Zhongqing, Dengjiang, Lingan, Yuanjiang, Guangxi, Qujing, Wuding, and Weichu. They were ruled by a new post, the tuguan (native official). The tuguan were official representatives of the Yuan dynasty but retained much autonomy, including the right of passing their hereditary post to their offspring, and autonomy to govern so long as they did not harbour criminals or behave in an anti-Yuan manner. The tuguan were obligated to pay taxes in the form of horses, precious metals, and finished goods. They also had to provide military support when requested.[19] The Yi kingdoms to the east were assigned the same posts and given similar terms.[20]

The tuguan were given a certificate of appointment (gaochi) that was publicly displayed at the tuguan's administrative headquarters. They were also given a seal (yinzheng) to issue orders as representatives of the Yuan state. A tiger tally was granted to authorize maintenance of horses for military mattes. Gold and silver tallies were issued to mobilize military resources.[21]

Sayyid 'Ajall introduced new agricultural techniques and published handbooks in the region. In Shanchan, he oversaw hydraulic projects such as dam and reservoir construction, river and canal dredging for transportation purposes, and draining swamps for land reclamation. He established 55 schools in Yunnan based on a Chinese curriculum and hired Han Chinese instructors to staff them. However most of them were defunct by the beginning of the 14th century.[22] Farming households and garrisons were set up as far south as Dechang to expand agricultural production and to maintain the highway and its postal stations for the government.[23]

Yuan rule also introduced a significant Muslim influence into Yunnan.[15]

Duan under Yuan dynasty

[edit]

The 10th Governor-General of Dali Duan Gong was married to the Mongol Borjigin Princess Agai, daughter of the Yuan dynasty Prince of Liang, Basalawarmi. They had a son and a daughter, Duan Sengnu.[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31] their children were also called Duan Qiangna and Duan Bao.[32] However the Mongols feared the power of Duan Gong and killed him. Duan Sengnu raised Duan Bao to take revenge against Basalawarmi for the killing of Duan Gong.[33][34] A play was made based on these events.[35][36] According to Yuan documents, the Duan family were originally ethnic Han from Wuwei commandery, Gansu.[5][37][38] Other Duan families also originated from Wuwei.[39][40]

Conquest of Yunnan by the Ming dynasty

[edit]
Main article: Ming conquest of Yunnan

In 1381, the Ming dynasty dispatched 300,000 troops to crush the Yuan remnants in Yunnan.

The Duan clan, who helped the Yuan dynasty against a Red Turban Rebellion attack from Sichuan, also fought against the Ming army. Duan Shi, the 13th and the last hereditary Governor-General of Dali, refused to surrender by writing to Fu Youde, making it clear that Dali could only be a tributary to the Ming. In 1382 Lan Yu and Mu Ying's forces attacked and crushed Duan's realm after a fierce battle. The Duan family were then taken captive and escorted to the Ming capital of Nanjing.[41]

Government

[edit]

Under the influence of Chinese officials present from early times,[42] the Dali elite used Chinese script supplemented by Bai characters, which were themselves constructed based on Chinese characters.[43] The Dali court granted hereditary fiefs to pre-existing clan chiefs, in particular the Duan, Gao, Yang, and Dong clans, to win over their support. Some administrative units were designated semi-autonomous military divisions. Similarly to the Nanzhao military, the Dali military consisted of a standing army, townsfolk peasant-soldiers and indigenous militia.[44]

The rulers of Dali continued the traditions of Nanzhao, such as the royal title piaoxin (Lord of Pyu), the use of the same tall crowns, and taking Acuoye Guanyin as their tutelary deity. They also used the title emperor (huangdi).[45]

Language and ethnicity

[edit]
A Bai manuscript written in Classical Chinese.

Extant sources from Nanzhao and the Dali Kingdom show that the ruling elite used Chinese script.[46] The vast majority of Dali sources are written in Classical Chinese.[47] However the ruling elite also used Bai language for communication, but no attempt was made to standardize or popularize the script, and it remained an unofficial writing system.[48]

Today, most Bai people trace their ancestry to Nanzhao and the Dali Kingdom, but records from those kingdoms do not mention the Bai. The earliest references to "Bai people", or the "Bo", are from the Yuan dynasty. During the Ming dynasty, the Bai were also known as "Minjia" (civilians). A Bai script using Chinese characters was mentioned during the Ming dynasty.[49]

According to Stevan Harrell, while the ethnic identity of Nanzhao's ruling elite is still disputed, the subsequent Yang and Duan dynasties were both definitely Bai.[50]

Religion

[edit]

A version of Buddhism known as Azhali existed in Yunnan since the 9th century. The last king of Nanzhao established Buddhism as the state religion and many Dali kings continued the tradition. Ten of Dali's 22 kings retired to become Buddhist monks.[51]

Fan Chengda (1126-1193) encountered a Dali trade mission and noted that they sought Chinese literature, medical texts, Buddhist scriptures, and dictionaries in return for horses. He marveled that "these people all possessed proper etiquette, and carried and recited Buddhist scriptural books."[52]

[edit]

Family tree of monarchs

[edit]
Family Tree of the Emperors of Dali
Duàn Bǎolóng
段寶龍
Duan Siping 段思平
b. c. 894 – d. c. 944
Taizu 太祖 r. 937–9441		Duan Sizhou 段思胄 (d. 951)
Taizong 太宗 (r. 945–951)3
Duan Siying 段思英
Wénjīng huángdì 文經皇帝
r. 944–9452		□Duan Sicong 段思聰 d. 968
Zhìdàoguǎngcí huángdì
至道廣慈皇帝 r. 952–9684
□Duan Sushun 段素順 d. 985
Yīngdào huángdì 應道皇帝
r. 968–9855
Duan Zhisi 段智思Duan Suying 段素英
Zhāomíng huángdì 昭明皇帝
r. 985–10096
Duan Silian 段思廉
Xīngzōng 興宗
r. 1044–107511		Duan Sulian 段素廉 d.1022
Xuānsù huángdì 宣肅皇帝
r. 1009–10227		□
Duan Lianshou 段廉寿[citation needed]Duan Lianyi 段廉義 d. 1080
Xìngzōng 興宗
r. 1075–108012		Duan Lianzheng 段廉正[citation needed]Duan Suzhen 段素真
Shèngdé huángdì 聖德皇帝
r. 1026–10419		Duan Sulong 段素隆
Bǐngyì huángdì 秉義皇帝
r. 1022–10268
Duan Shouhui 段壽輝
Shàngmíng huángdì
上明皇帝 r. 1080–108113		Duan Zhengming 段正明
Bǎodìng huángdì 保定皇帝
r.1081–109414		Duan Zhengchun 段正淳
Zhongzong 中宗
r. 1096–110815		□
Duan Heyu 段和譽
Xianzong 憲宗
r. 1108–114716		Duan Suxing 段素興
Tiānmíng huángdì 天明皇帝
r. 1041–104410
Duan Zhengxing 段正興
r. 1147–117117
Duan Zhixing 段智興
Xuanzong 宣宗
r. 1171–120018
Duan Zhixiang 段智祥
r. 1204–123820		Duan Zhilian 段智廉
r. 1200–120419
Duàn Ziangxing 段祥興
Xiàoyì huángdì 孝義皇帝
r. 1238–125121
Duan Xingzhi 段興智
r. 1251–1254;
1257–126022

Art

[edit]
Zhang Shengwen's Kingdom of Dali Buddhist Volume of Paintings. Scroll, Ink and color on paper. 30.4 cm high. Located in the National Palace Museum, Taipei. The entire work is 16.655 meters and is in three portions. Completed in 1176.
[edit]
  • Lacquered armour of the Dali Kingdom
    Lacquered armour of the Dali Kingdom
  • Dali religious painting
    Dali religious painting
  • Dali procession of nobles and soldiers
    Dali procession of nobles and soldiers
  • Pagoda of Chongsheng Temple, the royal temple of the Dali
    Pagoda of Chongsheng Temple, the royal temple of the Dali
  • Dharani pillar of Dali, 1220
    Dharani pillar of Dali, 1220
  • Bronze statue of Guanyin from Dali
    Bronze statue of Guanyin from Dali
  • Dali vajra sceptre (jingangchu)
    Dali vajra sceptre (jingangchu)

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Theobald, Ulrich (17 August 2012), "Dali 大理", China Knowledge.
  2. ^ a b West 2009, p. 79.
  3. ^ a b Yang 2008a.
  4. ^ Frederick W. Mote (2003). Imperial China 900-1800. Harvard University Press. pp. 710–. ISBN 978-0-674-01212-7.
  5. ^ a b Bryson 2016, p. 41.
  6. ^ Heirman, Ann; Meinert, Carmen; Anderl, Christoph (2018). Buddhist Encounters and Identities Across East Asia. BRILL. p. 97. ISBN 978-9004366152.
  7. ^ a b Bryson 2016, p. 38.
  8. ^ Herman 2007, p. 40.
  9. ^ Huang 2020, p. 80.
  10. ^ Fan 2011, p. 196.
  11. ^ a b Herman 2007, p. 47.
  12. ^ Herman 2007, p. 48.
  13. ^ Yang 2008c.
  14. ^ Frederick W. Mote; Denis Twitchett (26 February 1988). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644. Cambridge University Press. pp. 144–. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
  15. ^ a b c d Yang 2008b.
  16. ^ Herman 2007, p. 48-49.
  17. ^ Herman 2007, p. 49.
  18. ^ Herman 2007, p. 51-52.
  19. ^ Herman 2007, p. 52-53.
  20. ^ Herman 2007, p. 55.
  21. ^ Herman 2007, p. 53.
  22. ^ Herman 2007, p. 53-54.
  23. ^ Herman 2007, p. 55-56.
  24. ^ Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Wiles, Sue (2015). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women, Volume II: Tang Through Ming 618 - 1644. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 978-1317515623.
  25. ^ Mair, Victor H, ed. (2016). Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours. Flipside Digital Content Company Inc. p. 269. ISBN 978-9814620550.
  26. ^ Chen 陈, Lufan 吕范 (1990). 泰族起源问题研究. 国际文化出版公司. pp. 271, 285. ISBN 9787800494970. Retrieved Sep 9, 2008.
  27. ^ Mao yi yu lü you: Trade and tours. 1986. p. 19. Retrieved Jul 31, 2007.
  28. ^ Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Istituto italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (1991). Cina, Volumes 23-25. Istituto italiano per il medio ed estremo oriente. pp. 157, 159. Retrieved Jun 13, 2011.
  29. ^ Cina, Volumes 15-16. Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Istituto italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente. Istituto italiano per il medio ed estremo oriente. 1979. p. 295. Retrieved Jun 13, 2011.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  30. ^ Cina, Volumes 15-16. Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Istituto italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente. Istituto italiano per il medio ed estremo oriente. 1979. p. 295. Retrieved Jun 13, 2011.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  31. ^ Robinson, David M. (2019). "Part III - A Tough Crowd". In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–270. ISBN 9781108482448.
  32. ^ Bryson 2016, p. 212.
  33. ^ Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Wiles, Sue (2015). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women, Volume II: Tang Through Ming 618 - 1644. Routledge. p. 55. ISBN 978-1317515623.
  34. ^ Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Wiles, Sue, eds. (2014). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Tang Through Ming, 618-1644. M.E. Sharpe. p. 55. ISBN 978-0765643162.
  35. ^ Malmqvist, Nils Göran David, ed. (1989). A Selective Guide to Chinese Literature 1900-1949: The Drama. Vol. 4 of Selected Guide to Chinese Literature 1900-1949, Vol 4. European Science Foundation (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 126. ISBN 9004090983.
  36. ^ Renger, Almut-Barbara; Fan, Xin (2019). Receptions of Greek and Roman Antiquity in East Asia. BRILL. p. 316. ISBN 978-9004370715.
  37. ^ Mote, Frederick W. (2003). Imperial China 900-1800. Vol. 0 of Titolo collana (illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 710. ISBN 0674012127.
  38. ^ Mote, Frederick W. (1999). Imperial China 900-1800. Vol. 0 of Titolo collana (2, illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 710. ISBN 0674445155.
  39. ^ Reed, Carrie Elizabeth (2003). A Tang Miscellany: An Introduction to Youyang Zazu. Vol. 57 of Asian thought and culture. Peter Lang. pp. 11, 121. ISBN 0820467472. ISSN 0893-6870. Retrieved Sep 9, 2008.
  40. ^ Shang, Huping (2019). The Belt and Road Initiative: Key Concepts. Springer. p. 81. ISBN 978-9811392016.
  41. ^ Du Yuting; Chen Lufan. "Did Kublai Khan's conquest of the Dali Kingdom give rise to the mass migration of the Thai people to the south?" (PDF) (Institute for Asian Studies, Kunming ed.). Retrieved 2019-02-18. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  42. ^ Heirman, Ann; Meinert, Carmen; Anderl, Christoph (2018). Buddhist Encounters and Identities Across East Asia. BRILL. p. 105. ISBN 978-9004366152.
  43. ^ Craig Alan Volker; Fred E. Anderson (2015). Education in Languages of Lesser Power: Asia-Pacific Perspectives. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-9027269584.
  44. ^ Anderson, James A.; Whitmore, John K. (2014). China's Encounters on the South and Southwest: Reforging the Fiery Frontier Over Two Millennia. BRILL. pp. 109–110. ISBN 978-9004282483.
  45. ^ Stephanie Balkwill James A. Benn (2022). Buddhist Statecraft in East Asia. BRILL. pp. 95, 98, 105. ISBN 9789004510227.
  46. ^ Bryson 2013, p. 7.
  47. ^ Bryson 2016, p. 40-41.
  48. ^ Wang 2004, p. 280.
  49. ^ Bryson 2013, p. 6-7.
  50. ^ Harrell 1995, p. 87.
  51. ^ "Nanzhao State and Dali State". City of Dali. Archived from the original on 2006-09-03.
  52. ^ Bryson 2016, p. 40.

References

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