Jump to content

Depression (mood)

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Depressed mood)
"Hopelessness" redirects here. For the album, see Hopelessness (album).
"Despair" redirects here. For other uses, see Despair (disambiguation).

Depression
Lithograph of a person diagnosed with melancholia and strong suicidal tendency in 1892
SpecialtyPsychiatry, psychology
SymptomsLow mood, aversion to activity, loss of interest, loss of feeling pleasure
CausesBrain chemistry, genetics, life events, medical conditions, personality[1]
Risk factorsStigma of mental health disorder[2]
Diagnostic methodPatient Health Questionnaire, Beck Depression Inventory
Differential diagnosisAnxiety, bipolar disorder, borderline personality disorder
PreventionSocial connections, physical activity
TreatmentPsychotherapy, psychopharmacology
Part of a series on
Emotions
Emotions

Depression is a mental state of low mood and aversion to activity.[3] It affects about 3.5% of the global population, or about 280 million people of all ages (as of 2020).[4] Depression affects a person's thoughts, behavior, feelings, and sense of well-being.[5] Experiences that would normally bring a person pleasure or joy give reduced pleasure or joy, and the afflicted person often experiences a loss of motivation or interest in those activities.[6]

Depressed mood is a symptom of some mood disorders, also categorized and called depression, such as major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and dysthymia;[7] it is a normal temporary reaction to life events, such as the loss of a loved one; and it is also a symptom of some physical diseases and a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments. It may feature sadness, difficulty in thinking and concentration, or a significant increase or decrease in appetite and time spent sleeping. People experiencing depression may have feelings of dejection or hopelessness, and may experience suicidal thoughts. Depression can either be short term or long term.

Contributing factors

Allegory on melancholy, from c. 1729–1740, etching and engraving, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

Life events

Adversity in childhood, such as bereavement, neglect, mental abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, or unequal parental treatment of siblings can contribute to depression in adulthood.[8][9] Childhood physical or sexual abuse in particular significantly correlates with the likelihood of experiencing depression over the survivor's lifetime.[10] People who have experienced four or more adverse childhood experiences are 3.2 to 4.0 times more likely to suffer from depression.[11] Poor housing quality, non-functionality, lack of green spaces, and exposure to noise and air pollution are linked to depressive moods, emphasizing the need for consideration in planning to prevent such outcomes.[12] Locality has also been linked to depression and other negative moods. The rate of depression among those who reside in large urban areas is shown to be lower than those who do not.[13] Likewise, those from smaller towns and rural areas tend to have higher rates of depression, anxiety, and psychological unwellness.[14]

Studies have consistently shown that physicians have had the highest depression and suicide rates compared to people in many other lines of work—for suicide, 40% higher for male physicians and 130% higher for female physicians.[15][16][17]

Life events and changes that may cause depressed mood include (but are not limited to): childbirth, menopause, financial difficulties, unemployment, stress (such as from work, education, military service, family, living conditions, marriage, etc.), a medical diagnosis (cancer, HIV, diabetes, etc.), bullying, loss of a loved one, natural disasters, social isolation, rape, relationship troubles, jealousy, separation, or catastrophic injury.[18][19][20][21][22] Similar depressive symptoms are associated with survivor's guilt.[23] Adolescents may be especially prone to experiencing a depressed mood following social rejection, peer pressure, or bullying.[24]

Childhood and adolescence

Main article: Depression in childhood and adolescence

Depression in childhood and adolescence is similar to adult major depressive disorder, although young sufferers may exhibit increased irritability or behavioral dyscontrol instead of the more common sad, empty, or hopeless feelings seen with adults.[25] Children who are under stress, experiencing loss, or have other underlying disorders are at a higher risk for depression. Childhood depression is often comorbid with mental disorders outside of other mood disorders; most commonly anxiety disorder and conduct disorder. Depression also tends to run in families.[26]

Personality

Depression is associated with low extraversion,[27] and people who have high levels of neuroticism are more likely to experience depressive symptoms and are more likely to receive a diagnosis of a depressive disorder.[28] Additionally, depression is associated with low conscientiousness. Some factors that may arise from low conscientiousness include disorganization and dissatisfaction with life. Individuals may be more exposed to stress and depression as a result of these factors.[29]

Side effect of medical treatment

It is possible that some early-generation beta-blockers induce depression in some patients, though the evidence for this is weak and conflicting. There is strong evidence for a link between alpha interferon therapy and depression. One study found that a third of alpha interferon-treated patients had developed depression after three months of treatment. (Beta interferon therapy appears to have no effect on rates of depression.) There is moderately strong evidence that finasteride when used in the treatment of alopecia increases depressive symptoms in some patients. Evidence linking isotretinoin, an acne treatment, to depression is strong.[30] Other medicines that seem to increase the risk of depression include anticonvulsants, antimigraine drugs, antipsychotics and hormonal agents such as gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist.[31]

Substance-induced

Several drugs of abuse can cause or exacerbate depression, whether in intoxication, withdrawal, and from chronic use. These include alcohol, sedatives (including prescription benzodiazepines), opioids (including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs such as heroin), stimulants (such as cocaine and amphetamines), hallucinogens, and inhalants.[32]

Non-psychiatric illnesses

Main article: Depression (differential diagnoses)

Depressed mood can be the result of a number of infectious diseases, nutritional deficiencies, neurological conditions, and physiological problems, including hypoandrogenism (in men), Addison's disease, Cushing's syndrome, pernicious anemia, hypothyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, Lyme disease, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, celiac disease,[33] chronic pain, stroke, diabetes, cancer, and HIV.[34][35][36]

Studies have found that anywhere from 30 to 85 percent of patients suffering from chronic pain are also clinically depressed.[37][38][39] A 2014 study by Hooley et al. concluded that chronic pain increased the chance of death by suicide by two to three times.[40] In 2017, the British Medical Association found that 49% of UK chronic pain patients also had depression.[41]

As many as 1/3 of stroke survivors will later develop post-stroke depression. Because strokes may cause damage to the parts of the brain involved in processing emotions, reward, and cognition, stroke may be considered a direct cause of depression.[42]

Psychiatric syndromes

Main article: Depressive mood disorders

A number of psychiatric syndromes feature depressed mood as a main symptom. The mood disorders are a group of disorders considered to be primary disturbances of mood. These include major depressive disorder (commonly called major depression or clinical depression) where a person has at least two weeks of depressed mood or a loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities; and dysthymia, a state of chronic depressed mood, the symptoms of which do not meet the severity of a major depressive episode. Another mood disorder, bipolar disorder, features one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood, cognition, and energy levels, but may also involve one or more episodes of depression.[43] Individuals with bipolar depression are often misdiagnosed with unipolar depression.[44] When the course of depressive episodes follows a seasonal pattern, the disorder (major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, etc.) may be described as a seasonal affective disorder.

Outside the mood disorders: borderline personality disorder often features an extremely intense depressive mood; adjustment disorder with depressed mood is a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor, in which the resulting emotional or behavioral symptoms are significant but do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode;[45] and posttraumatic stress disorder, a mental disorder that sometimes follows trauma, is commonly accompanied by depressed mood.[46]

Inflammation

This section is an excerpt from Inflammation § Connection to depression.[edit]

There is evidence for a link between inflammation and depression.[47] Inflammatory processes can be triggered by negative cognitions or their consequences, such as stress, violence, or deprivation. Thus, negative cognitions can cause inflammation that can, in turn, lead to depression.[48][49][dubious – discuss] In addition, there is increasing evidence that inflammation can cause depression because of the increase of cytokines, setting the brain into a "sickness mode".[50]

Classical symptoms of being physically sick, such as lethargy, show a large overlap in behaviors that characterize depression. Levels of cytokines tend to increase sharply during the depressive episodes of people with bipolar disorder and drop off during remission.[51] Furthermore, it has been shown in clinical trials that anti-inflammatory medicines taken in addition to antidepressants not only significantly improves symptoms but also increases the proportion of subjects positively responding to treatment.[52]

Inflammations that lead to serious depression could be caused by common infections such as those caused by a virus, bacteria or even parasites.[53]

Historical legacy

Researchers have begun to conceptualize ways in which the historical legacies of racism and colonialism may create depressive conditions.[54][55] Given the lived experiences of marginalized peoples, ranging from conditions of migration, class stratification, cultural genocide, labor exploitation, and social immobility, depression can be seen as a "rational response to global conditions", according to Ann Cvetkovich.[56]

Psychogeographical depression overlaps somewhat with the theory of "deprejudice", a portmanteau of depression and prejudice proposed by Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon in 2012,[55] who argue for an integrative approach to studying the often comorbid experiences. Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon are concerned with the ways in which social stereotypes are often internalized, creating negative self-stereotypes that then produce depressive symptoms.

Unlike the theory of "deprejudice", a psychogeographical theory of depression attempts to broaden study of the subject beyond an individual experience to one produced on a societal scale, seeing particular manifestations of depression as rooted in dispossession; historical legacies of genocide, slavery, and colonialism are productive of segregation, both material and psychic material deprivation,[57] and concomitant circumstances of violence, systemic exclusion, and lack of access to legal protections. The demands of navigating these circumstances compromise the resources available to a population to seek comfort, health, stability, and sense of security. The historical memory of this trauma conditions the psychological health of future generations, making psychogeographical depression an intergenerational experience as well.

This work is supported by recent studies in genetic science which has demonstrated an epigenetic link between the trauma suffered by Holocaust survivors and the genetic reverberations for subsequent generations.[58][non-primary source needed] Likewise, research by scientists at Emory University suggests that memories of trauma can be inherited, rendering offspring vulnerable to psychological predispositions for stress disorders, schizophrenia, and PTSD.[59]

Measures

Measures of depression include, but are not limited to: Beck Depression Inventory-11 and the 9-item depression scale in the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9).[60] Both of these measures are psychological tests that ask personal questions of the participant, and have mostly been used to measure the severity of depression. The Beck Depression Inventory is a self-report scale that helps a therapist identify the patterns of depression symptoms and monitor recovery. The responses on this scale can be discussed in therapy to devise interventions for the most distressing symptoms of depression.[6]

Theories

Schools of depression theories include:

Management

Main article: Management of depression

Depressed mood may not require professional treatment, and may be a normal temporary reaction to life events, a symptom of some medical condition, or a side effect of some drugs or medical treatments. A prolonged depressed mood, especially in combination with other symptoms, may lead to a diagnosis of a psychiatric or medical condition which may benefit from treatment.

The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) 2009 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk-benefit ratio is poor.[61]

Physical activity has a protective effect against the emergence of depression in some people.[62]

There is limited evidence suggesting yoga may help some people with depressive disorders or elevated levels of depression, but more research is needed.[63][64]

Reminiscence of old and fond memories is another alternative form of treatment, especially for the elderly who have lived longer and have more experiences in life.[65] It is a method that causes a person to recollect memories of their own life, leading to a process of self-recognition and identifying familiar stimuli. By maintaining one's personal past and identity, it is a technique that stimulates people to view their lives in a more objective and balanced way, causing them to pay attention to positive information in their life stories, which would successfully reduce depressive mood levels.[66]

There is limited evidence that continuing antidepressant medication for one year reduces the risk of depression recurrence with no additional harm.[67] Recommendations for psychological treatments or combination treatments in preventing recurrence are not clear.[67]

Epidemiology

Main article: Epidemiology of depression

Depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide, the United Nations (UN) health agency reported, estimating that it affects more than 300 million people worldwide – the majority of them women, young people and the elderly. An estimated 4.4 percent of the global population has depression, according to a report released by the UN World Health Organization (WHO), which shows an 18 percent increase in the number of people living with depression between 2005 and 2015.[68][69][70]

Depression is a major mental-health cause of disease burden. Its consequences further lead to significant burden in public health, including a higher risk of dementia, premature mortality arising from physical disorders, and maternal depression impacts on child growth and development.[71] Approximately 76% to 85% of depressed people in low- and middle-income countries do not receive treatment;[72] barriers to treatment include: inaccurate assessment, lack of trained health-care providers, social stigma and lack of resources.[4]

The stigma comes from misguided societal views that people with mental illness are different from everyone else, and they can choose to get better only if they wanted to.[73] Due to this more than half of the people with depression do not receive help with their disorders. The stigma leads to a strong preference for privacy. An analysis of 40,350 undergraduates from 70 institutions by Posselt and Lipson found that undergraduates who perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive had a 37% higher chance of developing depression and a 69% higher chance of developing anxiety.[74] Several studies have suggested that unemployment roughly doubles the risk of developing depression.[75][76][77][78][79]

The World Health Organization has constructed guidelines – known as The Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP) – aiming to increase services for people with mental, neurological and substance-use disorders.[4] Depression is listed as one of conditions prioritized by the programme. Trials conducted show possibilities for the implementation of the programme in low-resource primary-care settings dependent on primary-care practitioners and lay health-workers.[80] Examples of mhGAP-endorsed therapies targeting depression include Group Interpersonal Therapy as group treatment for depression and "Thinking Health", which utilizes cognitive behavioral therapy to tackle perinatal depression.[4] Furthermore, effective screening in primary care is crucial for the access of treatments. The mhGAP adopted its approach of improving detection rates of depression by training general practitioners. However, there is still weak evidence supporting this training.[71]

According to 2011 study, people who are high in hypercompetitive traits are also likely to measure higher for depression and anxiety.[81]

History

Main article: History of depression

The term depression was derived from the Latin verb deprimere, "to press down".[82] From the 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author Richard Baker's Chronicle to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in 1753.[83]

In Ancient Greece, disease was thought due to an imbalance in the four basic bodily fluids, or humors. Personality types were similarly thought to be determined by the dominant humor in a particular person. Derived from the Ancient Greek melas, "black", and kholé, "bile",[84] melancholia was described as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms by Hippocrates in his Aphorisms, where he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time" as being symptomatic of the ailment.[85]

During the 18th century, the humoral theory of melancholia was increasingly being challenged by mechanical and electrical explanations; references to dark and gloomy states gave way to ideas of slowed circulation and depleted energy.[86] German physician Johann Christian Heinroth, however, argued melancholia was a disturbance of the soul due to moral conflict within the patient.

In the 20th century, the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin distinguished manic depression. The influential system put forward by Kraepelin unified nearly all types of mood disorder into manic–depressive insanity. Kraepelin worked from an assumption of underlying brain pathology, but also promoted a distinction between endogenous (internally caused) and exogenous (externally caused) types.[87]

Other psycho-dynamic theories were proposed. Existential and humanistic theories represented a forceful affirmation of individualism.[88] Austrian existential psychiatrist Viktor Frankl connected depression to feelings of futility and meaninglessness.[89] Frankl's logotherapy addressed the filling of an "existential vacuum" associated with such feelings, and may be particularly useful for depressed adolescents.[90][91]

Researchers theorized that depression was caused by a chemical imbalance in neurotransmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of reserpine and isoniazid in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms.[92] During the 1960s and 70s, manic-depression came to refer to just one type of mood disorder (now most commonly known as bipolar disorder) which was distinguished from (unipolar) depression. The terms unipolar and bipolar had been coined by German psychiatrist Karl Kleist.[87]

In July 2022, British psychiatrist Joanna Moncrieff, also psychiatrist Mark Horowtiz and others proposed in a study on academic journal Molecular Psychiatry that depression is not caused by a serotonin imbalance in the human body, unlike what most of the psychiatry community points to, and that therefore anti-depressants do not work against the illness.[93][94] However, such study was met with criticism from some psychiatrists, who argued the study's methodology used an indirect trace of serotonin, instead of taking direct measurements of the molecule.[95] Moncrieff said that, despite her study's conclusions, no one should interrupt their treatment if they are taking any anti-depressant.[95]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Depression". Cleveland Clinic. 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
  2. ^ Shrivastava A, Bureau Y, Rewari N, Johnston M (April 2013). "Clinical risk of stigma and discrimination of mental illnesses: Need for objective assessment and quantification". Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 55 (2): 178–82. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.111459. PMC 3696244. PMID 23825855.
  3. ^ "Depression Basics". NIMH. 2016. Archived from the original on 11 June 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2020.
  4. ^ a b c d "Depression". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  5. ^ de Zwart PL, Jeronimus BF, de Jonge P (October 2019). "Empirical evidence for definitions of episode, remission, recovery, relapse and recurrence in depression: a systematic review". Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. 28 (5): 544–562. doi:10.1017/S2045796018000227. PMC 7032752. PMID 29769159.
  6. ^ a b Gilbert P (2007). Psychotherapy and counselling for depression (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage. ISBN 978-1-84920-349-4. OCLC 436076587.[page needed]
  7. ^ American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Association.[page needed]
  8. ^ Heim C, Newport DJ, Mletzko T, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB (July 2008). "The link between childhood trauma and depression: insights from HPA axis studies in humans". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 33 (6): 693–710. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.008. PMID 18602762. S2CID 2629673.
  9. ^ Pillemer K, Suitor JJ, Pardo S, Henderson C (April 2010). "Mothers' Differentiation and Depressive Symptoms among Adult Children". Journal of Marriage and the Family. 72 (2): 333–345. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00703.x. PMC 2894713. PMID 20607119.
  10. ^ Lindert J, von Ehrenstein OS, Grashow R, Gal G, Braehler E, Weisskopf MG (April 2014). "Sexual and physical abuse in childhood is associated with depression and anxiety over the life course: systematic review and meta-analysis". International Journal of Public Health. 59 (2): 359–72. doi:10.1007/s00038-013-0519-5. PMID 24122075. S2CID 24138761.
  11. ^ Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Bremner JD, Walker JD, Whitfield C, Perry BD, et al. (April 2006). "The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 256 (3): 174–186. doi:10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4. PMC 3232061. PMID 16311898.
  12. ^ Rautio, Nina; Filatova, Svetlana; Lehtiniemi, Heli; Miettunen, Jouko (February 2018). "Living environment and its relationship to depressive mood: A systematic review". International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 64 (1): 92–103. doi:10.1177/0020764017744582. ISSN 0020-7640. PMID 29212385.
  13. ^ Stier, Andrew J.; Schertz, Kathryn E.; Rim, Nak Won; Berman, Mark G. (August 2021). "Evidence and theory for lower rates of depression in larger US urban areas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (31). doi:10.1073/pnas.2022472118. PMC 8346882. PMID 34315817.
  14. ^ Willroth, Emily C.; Graham, Elieen K.; Luo, Jing; Mrocezk, Daniel K.; Lewis-Thames, Marquita W. (February 2023). "Rural–urban differences in personality traits and well-being in adulthood". Journal of Personality. 92 (1): 73–87. doi:10.1111/jopy.12818. PMC 10390645. PMID 36725776.
  15. ^ Rotenstein, Lisa S.; Ramos, Marco A.; Torre, Matthew; Segal, J. Bradley; Peluso, Michael J.; Guille, Constance; Sen, Srijan; Mata, Douglas A. (6 December 2016). "Prevalence of Depression, Depressive Symptoms, and Suicidal Ideation Among Medical Students: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". JAMA. 316 (21): 2214–2236. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.17324. PMC 5613659. PMID 27923088.
  16. ^ Mata, Douglas A.; Ramos, Marco A.; Bansal, Narinder; Khan, Rida; Guille, Constance; Di Angelantonio, Emanuele; Sen, Srijan (8 December 2015). "Prevalence of Depression and Depressive Symptoms Among Resident Physicians". JAMA. 314 (22): 2373–83. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.15845. PMC 4866499. PMID 26647259.
  17. ^ Chen, Pauline W. (7 October 2010). "Medical Student Distress and the Risk of Doctor Suicide". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
  18. ^ Schmidt PJ (December 2005). "Mood, depression, and reproductive hormones in the menopausal transition". The American Journal of Medicine. 118 (12B): 54–8. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.09.033. PMID 16414327.
  19. ^ Rashid, Tariq; Haider, Ijaz (31 January 2008). "Life Events and Depression". Annals of Punjab Medical College. 2 (1): 11–16. doi:10.29054/apmc/2008.621.
  20. ^ Mata DA, Ramos MA, Bansal N, Khan R, Guille C, Di Angelantonio E, Sen S (December 2015). "Prevalence of Depression and Depressive Symptoms Among Resident Physicians: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA. 314 (22): 2373–83. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.15845. PMC 4866499. PMID 26647259.
  21. ^ "NIMH » Perinatal Depression". www.nimh.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 27 March 2020. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
  22. ^ "Postpartum Depression". medlineplus.gov. Archived from the original on 27 July 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
  23. ^ Fimiani, Ramona; Gazzillo, Francesco; Dazzi, Nino; Bush, Marshall (3 July 2022). "Survivor guilt: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical features". International Forum of Psychoanalysis. 31 (3): 176–190. doi:10.1080/0803706X.2021.1941246. ISSN 0803-706X.
  24. ^ Davey CG, Yücel M, Allen NB (2008). "The emergence of depression in adolescence: development of the prefrontal cortex and the representation of reward". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 32 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.04.016. PMID 17570526. S2CID 20800688.
  25. ^ Birmaher B, Ryan ND, Williamson DE, Brent DA, Kaufman J, Dahl RE, et al. (November 1996). "Childhood and adolescent depression: a review of the past 10 years. Part I". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 35 (11): 1427–1439. doi:10.1097/00004583-199611000-00011. PMID 8936909. S2CID 11623499.
  26. ^ "The Depressed Child". Facts for Families. No. 4. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. July 2013.
  27. ^ Kotov R, Gamez W, Schmidt F, Watson D (September 2010). "Linking "big" personality traits to anxiety, depressive, and substance use disorders: a meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 136 (5): 768–821. doi:10.1037/a0020327. PMID 20804236.
  28. ^ Jeronimus BF, Kotov R, Riese H, Ormel J (October 2016). "Neuroticism's prospective association with mental disorders halves after adjustment for baseline symptoms and psychiatric history, but the adjusted association hardly decays with time: a meta-analysis on 59 longitudinal/prospective studies with 443 313 participants". Psychological Medicine. 46 (14): 2883–2906. doi:10.1017/S0033291716001653. PMID 27523506. S2CID 23548727. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  29. ^ Daze, Gilad (8 March 2022). "Explore the Impact of Depression Traits". BrainsWay. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  30. ^ Rogers D, Pies R (December 2008). "General Medical Drugs Associated with Depression". Psychiatry. 5 (12): 28–41. PMC 2729620. PMID 19724774.
  31. ^ Botts S, Ryan M. Drug-Induced Diseases Section IV: Drug-Induced Psychiatric Diseases Chapter 18: Depression. pp. 1–23. Archived from the original on 23 December 2010. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
  32. ^ American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.[page needed]
  33. ^ Zingone, Fabiana; Swift, Gillian L; Card, Timothy R; Sanders, David S; Ludvigsson, Jonas F; Bai, Julio C (April 2015). "Psychological morbidity of celiac disease: A review of the literature". United European Gastroenterology Journal. 3 (2): 136–145. doi:10.1177/2050640614560786. ISSN 2050-6406. PMC 4406898. PMID 25922673.
  34. ^ Murray ED, Buttner N, Price BH. (2012) "Depression and Psychosis in Neurological Practice". In: Neurology in Clinical Practice, 6th Edition. Bradley WG, Daroff RB, Fenichel GM, Jankovic J (eds.) Butterworth Heinemann ISBN 978-1437704341[page needed]
  35. ^ Rustad JK, Musselman DL, Nemeroff CB (October 2011). "The relationship of depression and diabetes: pathophysiological and treatment implications". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 36 (9): 1276–86. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.03.005. PMID 21474250. S2CID 32439196.
  36. ^ Li M, Fitzgerald P, Rodin G (April 2012). "Evidence-based treatment of depression in patients with cancer". Journal of Clinical Oncology. 30 (11): 1187–96. doi:10.1200/JCO.2011.39.7372. PMID 22412144.
  37. ^ Sheng, Jiyao; Liu, Shui; Wang, Yicun; Cui, Ranji; Zhang, Xuewen (2017). "The Link between Depression and Chronic Pain: Neural Mechanisms in the Brain". Neural Plasticity. 2017: 1–10. doi:10.1155/2017/9724371. PMC 5494581. PMID 28706741.
  38. ^ Surah, A; Baranidharan, G; Morley, S (April 2014). "Chronic pain and depression". Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain. 14 (2): 85–89. doi:10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkt046.
  39. ^ Holmes, Alex; Christelis, Nicholas; Arnold, Carolyn (October 2013). "Depression and chronic pain". Medical Journal of Australia. 199 (S6): S17-20. doi:10.5694/mja12.10589. PMID 25370278. S2CID 27576624.
  40. ^ U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (2022). "Managing Chronic Pain May Protect Against Suicide Risk" (PDF).
  41. ^ "Chronic pain: supporting safer prescribing of analgesics" (PDF). British Medical Association. 2017.
  42. ^ Medeiros, Gustavo C.; Roy, Durga; Kontos, Nicholas; Beach, Scott R. (1 September 2020). "Post-stroke depression: A 2020 updated review". General Hospital Psychiatry. 66: 70–80. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2020.06.011. ISSN 0163-8343.
  43. ^ Gabbard G. Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders. Vol. 2 (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing. p. 1296.
  44. ^ Jackel, Donna (24 January 2024). "Bipolar Depression vs. Unipolar Depression". bpHope.com. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
  45. ^ American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision: DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. p. 355. ISBN 978-0890420256.
  46. ^ Vieweg WV, Julius DA, Fernandez A, Beatty-Brooks M, Hettema JM, Pandurangi AK (May 2006). "Posttraumatic stress disorder: clinical features, pathophysiology, and treatment". The American Journal of Medicine. 119 (5): 383–90. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.09.027. PMID 16651048.
  47. ^ Berk M, Williams LJ, Jacka FN, O'Neil A, Pasco JA, Moylan S, Allen NB, Stuart AL, Hayley AC, Byrne ML, Maes M (September 2013). "So depression is an inflammatory disease, but where does the inflammation come from?". BMC Medicine. 11: 200. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-200. PMC 3846682. PMID 24228900.
  48. ^ Cox WT, Abramson LY, Devine PG, Hollon SD (September 2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 7 (5): 427–49. doi:10.1177/1745691612455204. PMID 26168502. S2CID 1512121.
  49. ^ Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Derry HM, Fagundes CP (November 2015). "Inflammation: depression fans the flames and feasts on the heat". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 172 (11): 1075–91. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15020152. PMC 6511978. PMID 26357876.
  50. ^ Williams C (4 January 2015). "Is depression a kind of allergic reaction?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
  51. ^ Brietzke E, Stertz L, Fernandes BS, Kauer-Sant'anna M, Mascarenhas M, Escosteguy Vargas A, Chies JA, Kapczinski F (August 2009). "Comparison of cytokine levels in depressed, manic and euthymic patients with bipolar disorder". Journal of Affective Disorders. 116 (3): 214–7. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.12.001. PMID 19251324.
  52. ^ Müller N, Schwarz MJ, Dehning S, Douhe A, Cerovecki A, Goldstein-Müller B, Spellmann I, Hetzel G, Maino K, Kleindienst N, Möller HJ, Arolt V, Riedel M (July 2006). "The cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor celecoxib has therapeutic effects in major depression: results of a double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled, add-on pilot study to reboxetine". Molecular Psychiatry. 11 (7): 680–4. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001805. PMID 16491133.
  53. ^ Canli T (2014). "Reconceptualizing major depressive disorder as an infectious disease". Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders. 4: 10. doi:10.1186/2045-5380-4-10. PMC 4215336. PMID 25364500.
  54. ^ Cvetkovich A (2012). Depression: A Public Feeling. Durham, NC: Duke University Press Books. ISBN 978-0-8223-5238-9.[page needed]
  55. ^ a b Cox, William T.L.; Abramson, Lyn Y.; Devine, Patricia G.; Hollon, Steven D. (September 2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 7 (5): 427–49. doi:10.1177/1745691612455204. PMID 26168502. S2CID 1512121. Closed access icon
  56. ^ Cvetkovich, Ann (2012). Depression: A Public Feeling. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0822352389. OCLC 779876753. …the histories of genocide, slavery, and exclusion and oppression of immigrants that seep into our daily lives of segregation, often as invisible forces that structure comfort and privilege for some and lack of resources for others, inequities whose connection to the past frequently remain obscure. These are depressing conditions, indeed, ones that make depression seem not so much a medical or biochemical dysfunction as a very rational response to global conditions.
  57. ^ Ta-Nehisi Coates (June 2014). "The Case for Reparations". The Atlantic.
  58. ^ Yehuda, Rachel; Daskalakis, Nikolaos P.; Bierer, Linda M.; Bader, Heather N.; Klengel, Torsten; Holsboer, Florian; Binder, Elisabeth B. (12 August 2015). "Holocaust Exposure Induced Intergenerational Effects on FKBP5 Methylation". Biological Psychiatry. 80 (5): 372–380. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.005. PMID 26410355. Closed access icon
  59. ^ Callaway, Ewen (1 December 2013). "Fearful Memories Haunt Mouse Descendants". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.14272. S2CID 155233262.
  60. ^ Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB (September 2001). "The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 16 (9): 606–13. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x. PMC 1495268. PMID 11556941.
  61. ^ NICE guidelines, published October 2009 Archived 21 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Nice.org.uk. Retrieved on 24 November 2015.
  62. ^ Schuch FB, Vancampfort D, Firth J, Rosenbaum S, Ward PB, Silva ES, et al. (July 2018). "Physical Activity and Incident Depression: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 175 (7): 631–648. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17111194. PMID 29690792.
  63. ^ Cramer H, Lauche R, Langhorst J, Dobos G (November 2013). "Yoga for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Depression and Anxiety. 30 (11): 1068–83. doi:10.1002/da.22166. PMID 23922209. S2CID 8892132.
  64. ^ Grensman A, Acharya BD, Wändell P, Nilsson GH, Falkenberg T, Sundin Ö, Werner S (March 2018). "Effect of traditional yoga, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, and cognitive behavioral therapy, on health related quality of life: a randomized controlled trial on patients on sick leave because of burnout". BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 18 (1): 80. doi:10.1186/s12906-018-2141-9. PMC 5839058. PMID 29510704.
  65. ^ Wu, Yuejin; Xu, Haiyan; Sui, Xin; Zeng, Ting; Leng, Xin; Li, Yuewei; Li, Feng (1 November 2023). "Effects of group reminiscence interventions on depressive symptoms and life satisfaction in older adults with intact cognition and mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review". Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics. 114: 105103. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2023.105103. ISSN 0167-4943. PMID 37354738.
  66. ^ Viguer P, Satorres E, Fortuna FB, Meléndez JC (November 2017). "A Follow-Up Study of a Reminiscence Intervention and Its Effects on Depressed Mood, Life Satisfaction, and Well-Being in the Elderly". The Journal of Psychology. 151 (8): 789–803. doi:10.1080/00223980.2017.1393379. PMID 29166223. S2CID 21839684.
  67. ^ a b Wilkinson P, Izmeth Z (September 2016). "Continuation and maintenance treatments for depression in older people". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016 (9): CD006727. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006727.pub3. PMC 6457610. PMID 27609183.
  68. ^ "UN health agency reports depression now 'leading cause of disability worldwide'". UN News. 23 February 2017. Archived from the original on 27 June 2019. Retrieved 27 June 2019.
  69. ^ Solomon, Andrew (17 November 2006). "Opinion | Our Great Depression". The New York Times.
  70. ^ "Depression is leading cause of disability worldwide, says WHO study". The Guardian. Agence France-Presse. 31 March 2017.
  71. ^ a b Reynolds CF, Patel V (October 2017). "Screening for depression: the global mental health context". World Psychiatry. 16 (3): 316–317. doi:10.1002/wps.20459. PMC 5608832. PMID 28941110.
  72. ^ Wang PS, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Alonso J, Angermeyer MC, Borges G, Bromet EJ, et al. (September 2007). "Use of mental health services for anxiety, mood, and substance disorders in 17 countries in the WHO world mental health surveys". Lancet. 370 (9590): 841–50. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(07)61414-7. PMC 2847360. PMID 17826169.
  73. ^ Borenstein, Jeffrey (August 2020). "Stigma, Prejudice and Discrimination Against People with Mental Illness". MakeItOK.org. American Psychiatric Association.
  74. ^ Posselt, Julie R.; Lipson, Sarah Ketchen (2016). "Competition, Anxiety, and Depression in the College Classroom: Variations by Student Identity and Field of Study". Journal of College Student Development. 57 (8): 973–989. doi:10.1353/csd.2016.0094. S2CID 151752884. Project MUSE 638561.
  75. ^ Pew Research Center (2010). "The Impact of Long-term Unemployment Lost Income, Lost Friends—and Loss of Self-respect" (PDF).
  76. ^ "Press Statement Irish Health Survey 2019 - Main Results - CSO - Central Statistics Office". www.cso.ie. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
  77. ^ Leopold, Les (17 January 2023). "Op-Ed: Being laid off is devastating. Yet society never measures that toll". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
  78. ^ McGee, Robin E.; Thompson, Nancy J. (19 March 2015). "Unemployment and Depression Among Emerging Adults in 12 States, Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2010". Preventing Chronic Disease. 12: E38. doi:10.5888/pcd12.140451. PMC 4372159. PMID 25789499.
  79. ^ Farré, Lídia; Fasani, Francesco; Mueller, Hannes (December 2018). "Feeling useless: the effect of unemployment on mental health in the Great Recession". IZA Journal of Labor Economics. 7 (1). doi:10.1186/s40172-018-0068-5. hdl:10261/170378.
  80. ^ Patel V, Weobong B, Nadkarni A, Weiss HA, Anand A, Naik S, et al. (April 2014). "The effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of lay counsellor-delivered psychological treatments for harmful and dependent drinking and moderate to severe depression in primary care in India: PREMIUM study protocol for randomized controlled trials". Trials. 15 (1): 101. doi:10.1186/1745-6215-15-101. PMC 4230277. PMID 24690184.
  81. ^ "Perspective | Yes, you can be too competitive. Here's why, and how to stop". The Washington Post. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  82. ^ depress. (n.d.). Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 30 June 2008, from dictionary.com
  83. ^ Wolpert, L. "Malignant Sadness: The Anatomy of Depression". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 October 2008.
  84. ^ Liddell, Henry; Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged ed.). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
  85. ^ Hippocrates, Aphorisms, Section 6.23
  86. ^ Jackson SW (July 1983). "Melancholia and mechanical explanation in eighteenth-century medicine". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 38 (3): 298–319. doi:10.1093/jhmas/38.3.298. PMID 6350428.
  87. ^ a b Davison K (2006). "Historical aspects of mood disorders". Psychiatry. 5 (4): 115–18. doi:10.1383/psyt.2006.5.4.115.
  88. ^ Covi, Lino (1986). "The Depressive Syndromes: An Overview". In Freeman, Arthur; Epstein, Norman; Simon, Karen M (eds.). Depression in the Family. Psychology Press. pp. 41–78 [64, 66]. ISBN 978-0-86656-624-7.
  89. ^ Frankl VE (2000). Man's search for ultimate meaning. New York, NY, USA: Basic Books. pp. 139–40. ISBN 0-7382-0354-8.
  90. ^ Seidner, Stanley S. (10 June 2009) "A Trojan Horse: Logotherapeutic Transcendence and its Secular Implications for Theology" Archived 1 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Mater Dei Institute. pp 14–15.
  91. ^ Blair RG (October 2004). "Helping older adolescents search for meaning in depression". Journal of Mental Health Counseling. 26 (4): 333–347. doi:10.17744/mehc.26.4.w8u9h6uf5ybhapyl.
  92. ^ Schildkraut JJ (1965). "The catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders: A review of supporting evidence". American Journal of Psychiatry. 122 (5): 509–22. doi:10.1176/ajp.122.5.509. PMID 5319766.
  93. ^ Moncrieff, Joanna; Cooper, Ruth E.; Stockmann, Tom; Amendola, Simone; Hengartner, Michael P.; Horowitz, Mark A. (August 2023). "The serotonin theory of depression: a systematic umbrella review of the evidence". Molecular Psychiatry. 28 (8): 3243–3256. doi:10.1038/s41380-022-01661-0. PMC 10618090. PMID 35854107. S2CID 250646781.
  94. ^ Moncrieff, Joanna; Horowitz, Mark (20 July 2022). "Depression is probably not caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain – new study". The Conversation. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  95. ^ a b "Study on serotonin and depression sparks fierce debate". France 24. AFP. 11 August 2022.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Depression.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depression_(mood)&oldid=1255414023"